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production of sugar

SUGARDESCRIPTION:

The sugar industry processes sugarcane and sugar beet to manufacture edible sugar more than 60% of the world’ssugar production is from sugar cane.

Sugar beet, sugar manufacturing is ahighly seasonal length of about 6 to 18 weeks for beets and 20 to 32 weeks forcane

Approximately 10% of the sugar canecan be processed to commercial sugar, using approximately 20 cubic meters ofwater per metric ton of cane processed. Sugar is also extracted from beet root

      Sugar cane contains:

§  70% water

§  14%fiber

§  10 to 15% sucrose and

§  2.7% soluble impurities

RAWMATERIALS

1.                Sugar cane

2.                Sugar beats

Sugar is a board term applied to alarge number of carbohydrates present in many plants. In the sap of some plantsthe sugar mixtures are condensed into syrup.

 The feed accumulates sugar to about 15 percentof its weight. Sugar beet is a beetroot variety with the highest sugar content.About 3700000 tons of sugar is manufactured from sugar beet

STRUCTUREOF SUGARS:

Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose(left) and fructose (right), important molecules in the body

Monosaccharide in a closed-chain formcan form glycosidic bonds with other monosaccharides, creating disaccharides(such as sucrose) and polysaccharides (such as starch). The prefix"glyco-" indicates the presence of a sugar in an otherwisenon-carbohydrate substance.

Monosaccharides include fructose,glucose, galactose and mannose. Disaccharides occur most commonly as sucrose(cane or beet sugar - made from one glucose and one fructose), lactose (milksugar - made from one glucose and one galactose) and maltose (made of twoglucoses). These disaccharides have the formula C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁.

Hydrolysis can convert sucrose into asyrup of fructose and glucose, producing invert sugar. This resultingsyrup, sweeter than the original sucrose, has uses in making confectionsbecause it does not crystallize as easily and thus produces a smoother finishedproduct.If combined with fine ash, sugar will burn with a blue flame

                           

The usualsugar cane constituents:

Constituents                                           %of total weight

H20                                                             69-75

Sucrose                                                       8-16

Reducing sugars                                           0.5-2

Organic substance                                        0.5-1

Nitrogenous bodies                                       0.5-1

Ash                                                             0.3-0.8

Fiber                                                            10-16

MANUFACTURINGPROCESS:

Planting and Harvesting:

Sugar cane requires an averagetemperature of 75 degrees Fahrenheit and uniform rainfall of about 80 inchesper year. Therefore, it is grown in tropical or subtropical areas.

Sugar cane takes about seven monthsto mature in a tropical and about 12-22 months in sub tropical area. At this time,fields of sugarcane are tested for sucrose and mature fields are harvested. Theharvesting is done primarily by machine.

Then the harvested cane stalks areloaded mechanically into trucks or railroads, cars and taken to mills forprocessing into raw sugars

PROCESSING:

Traditionally, sugarcane has beenprocessed in two stages. Sugarcane mills, located in sugarcane-producingregions, extract sugar from freshly harvested sugarcane, resulting in raw sugarfor later refining, and in "mill white" sugar for local consumption.Sugar refineries, often located in heavy sugar-consuming regions. Then thepurify raw sugar to produce refined white sugar, a product that is more than 99percent pure sucrose. These two stages are slowly becoming blurred. Increasingaffluence in the sugar-producing tropics has led to an increase in demand forrefined sugar products in those areas, where a trend toward combined millingand refining has developed.

Sugarcane first has to be moved to amill which is usually located close to the area of cultivation. Small railnetworks are a common method of transporting the cane to a mill. Once thefactories acquire the cane it will be subjected to the quality test. In Sri Lanka canewill be evaluated according to the brix and trash percentage.

JUICE EXTRACTION

In a sugar mill, sugarcane is washed,chopped, and shredded by revolving knives. The shredded cane is repeatedlymixed with water and crushed between rollers; the collected juices (calledgarapa in Brazil)contain 10–15 percent sucrose, and the remaining fibrous solids, calledbagasse, are burned for fuel. Bagasse makes a sugar mill more than self-sufficientin energy; the surplus bagasse can be used for animal feed, in papermanufacture, or burned to generate electricity for the local power grid.

Juice constituents:

Water                                       ---------->   75-85%

Sucrose                                    ---------->   10-21%

Other sugars                             ---------->    0.3-3%

Organic substance                     ---------->    0.2-0.6%

Nitrogenous bodies                   ---------->     0.5-1%

EVAPORATION

The cane juice is next mixed withlime to adjust its pH to 7. This mixing arrests sucrose's decay into glucoseand fructose, and precipitates out some impurities. The mixture then sits,allowing the lime and other suspended solids to settle out, and the clarifiedjuice is concentrated in a multiple-effect evaporator to make a syrup about 60percent by weight in sucrose. This syrup is further concentrated under vacuumuntil it becomes supersaturated, and then seeded with crystalline sugar. Uponcooling, sugar crystallizes out of the syrup.

CENTRIFUGE

A centrifuge is used to separate thesugar from the remaining liquid, or molasses. Additional crystallizations maybe performed to extract more sugar from the molasses; the molasses remainingafter no more sugar can be extracted from it in a cost-effective fashion iscalled blackstrap.

Raw sugar has a yellow to browncolour. If a white product is desired, sulfur dioxide may be bubbled throughthe cane juice before evaporation; this chemical bleaches many color-formingimpurities into colorless ones. Sugar bleached white by this sulfitationprocess is called "mill white", "plantation white", and"crystal sugar".

REFINING

In sugar refining, raw sugar isfurther purified. It is first mixed with heavy syrup and then centrifugedclean. This process is called 'affination'; its purpose is to wash away theouter coating of the raw sugar crystals, which is less pure than the crystalinterior. The remaining sugar is then dissolved to make syrup, about 70 percentby weight solids.

The sugar solution is clarified bythe addition of phosphoric acid and calcium hydroxide, which combine toprecipitate calcium phosphate. The calcium phosphate particles entrap someimpurities and absorb others, and then float to the top of the tank, where theycan be skimmed off. An alternative to this "phosphatation" techniqueis 'carbonatation,' which is similar, but uses carbon dioxide and calciumhydroxide to produce a calcium carbonate precipitate.

After any remaining solids arefiltered out, the clarified syrup is decolorized by filtration through a bed ofactivated carbon; bone char was traditionally used in this role, but its use isno longer common. Some remaining colour-forming impurities adsorb to the carbonbed. The purified syrup is then concentrated to supersaturation and repeatedlycrystallized under vacuum, to produce white refined sugar.

 As in a sugar mill, the sugar crystals areseparated from the molasses by centrifuging. Additional sugar is recovered byblending the remaining syrup with the washings from affination and againcrystallizing to produce brown sugar. When no more sugar can be economicallyrecovered, the final molasses still contains 20–30 percent sucrose and 15–25percent glucose and fructose.

To produce granulated sugar, in whichthe individual sugar grains do not clump together, sugar must be dried. Dryingis accomplished first by drying the sugar in a hot rotary dryer, and then byconditioning the sugar by blowing cool air through it for several days.

WASTE CHARACTESISTICS

The main air emissions from sugar processing and refiningresult primarily from the combustion of bagasse (the fiber residue of sugarcane), fuel oil, or coal. Other air emission sources include juice fermentationunits, evaporators, and sulfitation units.

Sugar manufacturing effluents typically have biochemicaloxygen demand (BOD) of 1,700–6,600 milligrams per liter (mg/l) in untreatedeffluent from cane processing and 4,000–7,000 mg/l from beet processing;chemical oxygen demand (COD) of 2,300–8,000 mg/l from cane processing and up to10,000 mg/l from beet processing; total suspended solids of up to 5,000 mg/l;and high ammonium content.

 The wastewater maycontain pathogens from contaminated materials or production processes. A sugarmill often generates odor and dust, which need to be controlled. Most of thesolid wastes can be processed into other products and by-products. In somecases, pesticides may be present in the sugar cane rinse liquids.

INDUSTRY SECTOR GUIDELINES

• Reduce product losses to less than 10% by better productioncontrol. Perform sugar auditing.

• Minimize storage time for juice and other intermediateproducts to reduce product losses and discharge of product into the wastewater stream.

• Give preference to less polluting clarification processessuch as those using bentonite instead of sulfite for the manufacture of white sugar.

• Collect waste product for use in other industries—forexample, bagasse for use in paper mills and as fuel. Cogeneration systems forlarge sugar mills generate electricity for sale. Beet chips can be used asanimal feed.

• Optimize the use of water and cleaning chemicals. Procurecane washed in the field. Prefer the use of dry cleaning methods.

• Recirculate cooling waters. Continuous sampling andmeasurement of key production parameters allow production losses to beidentified and reduced, thus reducing the waste load. Fermentation processesand juice handling are the main sources of leakage. Odor problems can usuallybe prevented with good hygiene and storage practices.

TREATMENTTECHNOLOGY

·                   Pretreatmentof effluents consists of screening and aeration, normally followed bybiological treatment.

·                   Ifspace is available, land treatment or pond systems are potential treatmentmethods. Other possible biological treatment systems include activated sludgeand anaerobic systems. Which can achieve a reduction in the BOD level of over95%. Odor control by ventilation and sanitation may be required forfermentation and juice-processing areas.

·                   Biofiltersmay be used for controlling odor. Cyclones, scrubbers, and electrostaticprecipitators are used for dust control. annual operating hours.

Boiling heat transfer

        Heat transfer in boiling fluids is complex but of considerable technical importance. It is characterized by an s-shaped curve relating heat flux to surface temperature difference (see say Kay & Nedderman 'Fluid Mechanics & Transfer Processes', CUP, 1985, p529).
     
         At low driving temperatures, no boiling occurs and the heat transfer rate is controlled by the usual single-phase mechanisms. As the surface temperature is increased, local boiling occurs and vapour bubbles nucleate, grow into the surrounding cooler fluid, and collapse. This is sub-cooled nucleate boiling and is a very efficient heat transfer mechanism.
   
           At high bubble generation rates the bubbles begin to interfere and the heat flux no longer increases rapidly with surface temperature (this is the departure from nucleate boiling DNB). At higher temperatures still, a maximum in the heat flux is reached (the critical heat flux). The regime of falling heat transfer which follows is not easy to study but is believed to be characterised by alternate periods of nucleate and film boiling. Nucleate boiling slowing the heat transfer due to gas phase {bubbles} creation on the heater surface, as mentioned, gas phase thermal conductivity is much lower than liquid phase thermal conductivity, so the outcome is a kind of "gas thermal barrier".
  
           At higher temperatures still, the hydro dynamically quieter regime of film boiling is reached. Heat fluxes across the stable vapor layers are low, but rise slowly with temperature. Any contact between fluid and the surface which may be seen probably leads to the extremely rapid .
 
Definitions/Terminology
 Saturation temperature (Tsat ) - boiling point temperature at prevailing pressure. In case of a mixture this will be bubble point temperature
 
Superheat - Excess temperature over the5 saturation value (T - Tsat);6 Wall superheat = (Twall - Tsat)7 Subcooling = (Tsat - T )8 Quality: Vapour phase mass fraction, ratio of9 vapour flowrate to the total flow rate.

Biodiesel

Biodiesel is a renewable fuel manufactured from vegetable oils, animal fats, and recycled
cooking oils. Biodiesel offers many advantages:
• It is renewable.
• It is energy efficient.
• It displaces petroleum derived diesel fuel.
• It can be used in most diesel equipment with no or only minor modifications.
• It can reduce global warming gas emissions.
• It can reduce tailpipe emissions, including air toxics.
• It is nontoxic, biodegradable, and suitable for sensitive environments.
• It is made in the United States from either agricultural or recycled resources.
• It can be easy to use if you follow these guidelines.



Biodiesel is a diesel replacement fuel that is manufactured from vegetable oils, recycled cooking greases or oils, or animal fats. Because plants produce oils from sunlight and air, and can do so year after year on cropland, these oils are renewable. Animal fats are produced when the animal consumes plant oils and other fats, and they too are renewable. Used cooking oils are mostly made from vegetable oils, but may also contain animal fats. Used cooking oils are both recycled and renewable.

The biodiesel manufacturing process converts oils and fats into chemicals called long chain mono alkyl esters, or biodiesel. These chemicals are also referred to as fatty acid methyl esters or FAME. In the manufacturing process, 100 pounds of oils or fats are reacted with 10 pounds of a short chain alcohol (usually methanol) in the presence of a catalyst (usually sodium or potassium hydroxide) to form 100 pounds of biodiesel and 10 pounds of glycerine. Glycerine is a sugar, and is a co-product of the biodiesel process.


Benefits of Biodiesel Use
Biodiesel Displaces Imported Petroleum
The fossil fuel energy required to produce biodiesel from soybean oil is only a fraction
(31%) of the energy contained in one gallon of the fuel.
You get 3.2 units of fuel energy from biodiesel for every unit of fossil energy used to produce the fuel. That estimate includes the energy used in diesel farm equipment and transportation equipment (trucks, locomotives), fossil fuels used to produce fertilizers and pesticides, fossil fuels used to produce steam and electricity, and methanol used in the manufacturing process. Because biodiesel is an energy-efficient fuel, it can extend petroleum supplies and makes for
sound state or federal energy policy.


Biodiesel Reduces Emissions

When biodiesel displaces petroleum, it reduces global warming gas emissions such as carbon dioxide (CO2). When plants like soybeans grow they take CO2 from the air to make the stems, roots, leaves, and seeds (soybeans). After the oil is extracted from the soybeans, it is converted into biodiesel and when burned produces CO2 and other emissions, which return to the atmosphere. This cycle does not add to the net CO2 concentration in the air because the next soybean crop will reuse the CO2 in order to grow.


Biodiesel and Human Health
Some PM and HC emissions from diesel fuel combustion are toxic or are suspected of
causing cancer and other life threatening illnesses. Using B100 can eliminate as much as 90% of these “air toxics.” B20 reduces air toxics by 20% to 40%. The effects of biodiese on air toxics are supported by numerous studies, starting with the former Bureau of Mines Center for Diesel Research at the University of Minnesota. The Department of Energy (DOE) conducted similar research through the University of Idaho, Southwest Research Institute, and the Montana Department of Environmental Quality. The National Biodiesel Board conducted Tier I and Tier II Health Effects Studies that also support these claims.

Biodiesel Improves Lubricity
By 2006, all U.S. highway diesel will contain less than 15 ppm sulfur—ultra low sulfur diesel fuel (ULSD). Currently highway diesel contains 500 ppm sulfur (or less). Biodiesel typically contains less than 15 parts per million (ppm) sulfur (sometimes as low as zero). Some biodiesel produced today may exceed 15 ppm sulfur, and those producers will be required to reduce those levels by 2006 if the biodiesel is sold into on-road markets.


Biodiesel is Easy to Use
And last, but maybe not least, the biggest benefit to using biodiesel is that it is easy. In blends of B20 or less, it is literally a “drop in” technology. No new equipment and no equipment modifications are necessary. B20 can be stored in diesel fuel tanks and pumped with diesel equipment.

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

Each phase of matter has its own chemical and physical properties. Here's a quick intro to the physical and chemical properties of matter.

Types of renewable resources

Renewable resources are considered natural resources that replenish faster then humans consume them.  This means that almost every resource that humans use in the world is considered a renewable resource.  It's just that we have to come up with ways that allow those resources to replenish back into the earth naturally faster then we consume them.  That is almost impossible with resources like coal, oil, and other resources that takes hundreds if not thousands of years to replenish.

Water is a good example of a renewable resource, for the fact that for whatever water we use it gets cycled back into nature through evaporation, rain, and many other ways.  The only time it becomes nonrenewable is when it is taken from somewhere faster then nature can replace it, and something happens to either the source of the renewing, or the place the water was taken from and water is no longer there.  Another type of energy that water helps produce is through dams and other aqueducts.  These harness the power of the water passing through them and converts it to energy, as long as we don't use up the water faster then it can be replaced that is another endless supply of energy.

Another good example of a renewable resource would be solar power.  The sun gives us enough power to light up the country, it's always there, and always will be there tomorrow.  Why not use it since it is giving us all this energy everyday.  The sun produces the biggest deposit of renewable resources in the world, it would be a great opportunity to be able to harness that power and hopefully over time not rely on the earth for energy at all.  Another form of renewable energy that the sun brings us is wind energy.  Recently wind has become a very popular way to create energy to light homes, towns, cities, and hopefully in the future whole states can be powered by wind energy.

Many things are becoming renewable resources that weren't before, this is because people have become aware of the damaging effects of taking things from the earth faster then it can be replaced.  A good example of this is trees, many things are used from trees, and before people were aware of the consequences they were being cut down and not replaced.  But since then when a field is cleared there are saplings that are planted in the trees place.

Another part of the renewing process is recycling, since paper and other wood materials are being recycled it is driving down the need to cut trees down.  This is helping the environment to replenish the trees that have been lost in the past.  The problem with renewable resources was that they were expensive to make, which made the price for them to go up to levels that did not make it sensible for people to buy.  But since the demand for these resources have risen it has made the price for renewable resources to drop.  These prices will continue to drop as long as the demand gets higher. 

With the growing popularity of becoming green, renewable resources have became top priority for a lot of people.  There are many different types of renewable resources.  Like I said earlier water can be a great source of renewable resource, so can cardboard, wood, paper, some oils, farming bi-products, scrap metal is another renewable resource thanks to the support of recycling.

With the growing important of finding reliable renewable resources there have been great advancements in using bio materials, these materials can be used to power many different things that normally would take nonrenewable resources in the past.  And with the development of better technologies these improvements will continue to get better.  It takes everyone to make it work though, so if you don't recycle please start.  If you can walk somewhere instead of driving, it will help the environment and your health by walking.

     These are all small things that when done in great amounts will add many decades of resources that we can use in the future. 

What Does Renewable Resource Mean?

A substance of economic value that can be replaced or replenished in the same amount or less time as it takes to draw the supply down. Some renewable resources have essentially an endless supply, such as solar energy, wind energy and geothermal pressure, while other resources are considered renewable even though some time or effort must go into their renewal, such as wood, oxygen, leather and fish. Most precious metals are considered renewable as well; even though they are not naturally replaced, they can be recycled because they are not destroyed during their extraction and use. 

Nanotechnology

Nano technology, shortened to   “Nano Tech” is the study of the control of matter on an    atomic   and molecular scale.  Generally  Nano technology  deals with  structure of  the size hundred nano meters  or smaller,  and involves  developing materials  or  devices  with in the system.

Where a nano meter is unit of length in the metric system equal to one billionth of meter.  Nano technology id\s extremely  diverse,  ranging from  naval extensions  of conventional devices  physics,  to completely new approaches  based upon  molecular  self  -  assembly.

Nano Technology is some times referred to as a general purpose technology.  That because in its advanced forms it will have significant impact on almost all industries and all of society,

Chemical Engineering Research and Design

Core topic areas

Distillation and absorption

• Hydrodynamics, heat and mass transfer in separation equipment
• Physical properties and thermodynamic models/methods
• Process design, operation and intensification
• Process equipment characterisation
• Process modelling, simulation and optimisation

Fluid flow

• All aspects of fluid flow in chemical and/or process vessels

Heat and mass transfer

• Mechanisms of heat and mass transfer
• Multicomponent mass transfer
• Simulation of heat and mass transfer processes
• Simultaneous heat and mass transfer

Materials processing and product development

• Fundamental properties of interest to processing of materials
• Injection moulding of materials
• In-line measurement and control of material processes
• Morphological development processes
• Pre-processing, shaping, multi-layering and finishing of final product form
• Product design based on chemical engineering tools
• Structure-function relationships in products and relevant systems
• Tailoring chemical products and materials for end-use applications

Oil and natural gas production

• Economics of upstream oil and gas development
• Facilities
• Oil and gas transport
• Well and reservoir oil, gas and water flow behaviour
• Well treatments and fracturing

Particle technology

• Crystallisation and precipitation
• Design of particulate systems and processes
• Formation and synthesis of particulates
• Kinetics of particulate processes
• Measurement and characterisation of particulate systems
• Processing, handling and storage of powders and dispersions
• Product formulation and rheology

Pharmaceutical engineering

• Design, modelling, operation and control of pharmaceutical (bio)reactors, unit operators and process systems used in the production of (bio)pharmaceuticals.
• Application of process analytical technology in pharmaceutical product and process design and characterisation.
• Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic modelling
  Design, characterisation and modelling of drug delivery systems.

Process systems engineering

• Information modelling and analysis
• Process design and integration
• Process modelling, simulation and optimization
• Process operations and control
• Techno-economic analysis

Reaction engineering

• Catalysis engineering
• Process intensification
• Reaction kinetics
• Reactive flows
• Reactor development, modelling and scale-up

Separation processes

• Adsorption science and technology
• Green processes
• Intensification and integration of separation processes
• Molecular separation: membranes, chromatography
• Phase separation: clarification, flocculation, microfiltration
• Reactive separation processes: hybrid and novel separation techniques
• Separation by phase change

How To Safely Work at a Chemical Plant

The chemical process industry is a thriving one, what with the numerous products that you can get as an end consumer. It is small wonder if you are embarking on a career that involves working at a chemical plant. But just as the compensation and career growth opportunities are high, the safety risks are doubled or tripled as opposed to working more clerical jobs. Many a chemical tragedy has claimed lives needlessly, and often even affecting the very environment under which the chemical disaster took place. It is very important for you to learn how to safely work at a chemical plant to avoid getting a sizable income at the expense of your precious life. Here is how you can ensure safety in a chemical plant job:

1. Get in touch with the chemical safety key person or team. There is often a person or team in charge of the safety policies and procedures of a chemical plant. You need to get to know these people so that you can also give them a heads up of certain policies that are not properly implemented, for your safety as well as everybody in the chemical plant. 
2. Observe the classification and proper labeling of chemicals. Chemicals need to be labeled accordingly to prevent explosive tendencies between adverse chemical reactions. There are some chemicals that are fatal to place side by side in a shelf. Make sure that you are able to properly read the labels before making use of the chemicals in the plant, especially those which require large quantities.
3. Have the right safety gear. Your attire will make or break your risk for getting hurt by toxic chemicals. There are chemicals that are caustic and not too friendly to the skin. Make sure that you are able to wear the right safety gear at all time. Scrub suits, goggles and even the right footwear may really save you in the most dangerous situations.
4. Heed the chemical safety signs. These signs are often laminated to be durable even under the most severe chemical working conditions. The chemical safety signs often adhere to a global standard. Regardless of the language, the icons will speak of warnings and policies in certain areas.
5. Properly fill out the material safety data sheet. If you are an individual worker for chemicals, you material safety data sheet is your best ally. Do not be slack in filling out these fields so that you will have less risks of endangering yourself.
6. Be acquainted with emergency procedures and facilities. Certain procedures of emergencies and other unfavorable conditions are very vital. First aid kit locations, fire extinguishers and many other tools are something you need to know as well as the back of your hand.
7. Familiarize yourself completely with the process flow of your chemical plant. The process flow will not just help you see the significance of your work, but you will also be able to quickly detect how to get out and stay safe when things get wrong or malfunction in one system.

Modern Chemical Engineering

Modern Chemical Engineering

Most universities that offer Chemical Engineering as a degree train students regarding the field in its widest sense. The reason for that is most chemical engineering jobs require a wide knowledge in the application of the study.

A lot of chemical engineering jobs today require production of high performance materials for automotive, aerospace, electronic, biomedical, space, environmental, and military applications. These include products like:

• Ultra strong fabrics and fibers
• Composites and adhesives for vehicles
• Bio-compatible materials for prosthetics and implants
• Gels used in medical applications

New Research in Chemical Engineering

New research opens up new opportunities. Be it a discovery or a solution to a problem, they are all because of starting a new study. This is basically the reason why most governments and organizations fund these processes. And much more priority is given to research in Chemical Engineering. This field is given attention because chemical engineers are pioneers in processing raw materials or chemicals that they convert into a more useful and valuable form. They are also behind software engineering, where they start new techniques and technologies like nanotechnology and biomedical engineering.

Research completed by chemical engineers gave rise to the production of products like:

• Industrial chemicals
• Ceramics
• Fuels
• Agrochemicals
• Plastics
• Explosives
• Detergent products
• Fragrances and flavors
• Pharmaceuticals

Because of the known contributions of the products of their research, engineering universities and some companies always look for new discoveries. They usually use current techniques and new design ideas in all aspects of theory, development, and experimentation to come up with useful materials.

New Breakthroughs in Chemical Engineering

To better advance in the field of chemical engineering, new research studies are being started and worked on. For example, students getting a degree in Chemical Engineering in universities yearly work on research ideas. This is where simple and complex discoveries in the field usually come from.

However, studies don’t only come from Chemical Engineering universities. A company with specific goals also starts projects like these through opening chemical engineering jobs. With chemical engineers’ help, they are able to introduce new products for the market, which have proven helpful to the majority of the public.

Though there are already a lot of studies made in the field, some new research ideas are being conceptualized. Some even come from the results of previous studies that need to be improved or redesigned. Some of the topics for research nowadays include:

1. Distillation and Absorption
2. Fluid Flow
3. Heat and Mass Transfer
4. Materials Processing and Product Development
5. Oil and Natural Gas Production
6. Particle Technology
7. Pharmaceutical Engineering
8. Process Systems and Software Engineering
9. Reaction Engineering
10. Separation Process

All the topics for research may have been touched by previous studies already. However, as the technology advances, more and more demands from the public are challenging the field. This is the reason why chemical engineer jobs focus on discovering new breakthroughs to cater to the needs of the people.

Indeed, the world owes a lot to the results of chemical engineering research. Each individual company and all the chemical engineers behind every project should be thanked for the jobs they are doing. Without their pioneering research, the world’s technology might not be advancing up to the present.

ONGC Previous papers

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chemical engineering: Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics

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Chemical Engineering - New era

Solving The Mystery Of Sugar Chain Growth

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the microbe responsible for tuberculosis, uses an unusually strong cell wall, fortified with a carbohydrate called galactan, to protect itself from harsh environments and its host's immune system. Sugar polymers like galactan are built by enzymes called glycosyltransferases, which add successive sugar molecules to a chain, like beads on a string. Now researchers have developed an assay based on mass spectrometry to answer a long-standing question about the mechanism of these enzymes (J. Am. Chem. Soc., DOI: 10.1021/ja204448t).

Understanding how M. tuberculosis builds galactan could allow researchers to design drugs that interfere with the process, allowing infected people to mount an effective immune response, says Laura Kiessling, a chemical biologist at the University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Kiessling and her colleagues wanted to know whether GlfT2, one of the glycosyltransferases that synthesize galactan, uses what biochemists call a processive or distributive mechanism. Processive enzymes remain bound to the carbohydrate chain as they add monomers, while distributive enzymes fall off the sugar chain after each addition and then bind another chain. Drug designers would like to exploit such a mechanistic understanding in developing enzyme inhibitors, Kiessling says.

To distinguish between the two mechanisms, the researchers designed an assay that detects how often GlfT2 swaps polymer partners during elongation of the sugar chain. Initially, the team exposed GlfT2 to a lipid-linked oligosaccharide that mimics the base of the growing galactan chain. After allowing the enzyme to bind this molecule and start adding sugar monomers, the scientists introduced a deuterium-labeled version of the lipid-linked molecule. After the enzyme continued working to add monomers, the researchers analyzed the reaction products with matrix-assisted laser-desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry to measure the length of the sugar chains and to determine whether or not they were labeled with deuterium.

Kiessling expected that if the enzyme was processive, the longest carbohydrate chains would be unlabeled, because the enzyme would tightly latch onto the initial, unlabeled base molecule and wouldn't get distracted when the labeled one appeared. In contrast, a distributive mechanism would produce labeled and unlabeled carbohydrate chains of roughly equal lengths because the two lipid-linked molecules would have equal access to the enzyme each time it fell off a chain.

When Kiessling and her colleagues examined the mass spectrometry data, they found that none of the longest chains were labeled, suggesting to them that GlfT2 used a processive mechanism. Moreover, the researchers quantified the degree of processivity, or the probability that an enzyme bound to the chain would add another sugar before it fell off the chain. They determined that GlfT2's processivity increased as the sugar chain grew, suggesting that the enzyme, like some other polymer-building enzymes, binds more tightly to longer chains.

"This elegant, straightforward approach will be widely used by researchers studying carbohydrate polymerization, and could be applied to other polymers as well," says Todd Lowary, a chemist at the University of Alberta. The knowledge that GlfT2 shows greater affinity for longer sugar chains could be used to design inhibitors for use as antibiotics, he adds, although a crystal structure of the enzyme would better aid drug design.

Chemical & Engineering News

ISSN 0009-2347

Copyright © 2011 American Chemical Society